Tsev neeg tsob ntoo ntawm Indo-European lus: piv txwv, cov lus pab pawg, tshwj xeeb tshaj yog

Indo-European ceg ntawm hom lus yog ib yam ntawm cov loj tshaj plaws nyob rau hauv lub Eurasian lus tsev neeg. Nws tau kis nyob rau hauv lub xeem 5 centuries nyob rau hauv North thiab South America, Australia thiab qhov chaw ntawm teb chaws Africa. Indo-European lus rau lub hnub nyoog ntawm Discovery nyob ib ncig ntawm East Turkistan, uas yog nyob rau hauv lub sab hnub tuaj, sab hnub poob ntawm Ireland, ntawm Is Nrias teb nyob rau hauv sab qab teb mus rau sab qaum teb ntawm Scandinavia. Cov mej zeej ntawm lub tsev neeg muaj txog 140 hom lus. Tag nrho huvsi lawv hais txog 2 billion neeg (2007 kwv yees). English yuav siv sij hawm qhov kev qhov chaw nyob rau hauv lawv, tus naj npawb ntawm cov muaj.

Tus nqi ntawm lub Indo-European lus nyob rau hauv lub comparative-keeb kwm kev kawm yam lus

Nyob rau hauv txoj kev loj hlob ntawm comparative keeb kwm linvistiki tseem ceeb luag hauj lwm uas txoj kev kawm no yog ib yam uas Indo-European lus. Lub fact tias lawv tsev neeg yog ib tug ntawm cov thawj zaum uas tau pom nrog zoo sab nqaij daim tawv tob. Raws li ib tug txoj cai, nyob rau hauv science lwm cov tsev neeg txiav txim, ntawm ncaj qha los yog kov on qhov kev tau nyob rau hauv txoj kev tshawb no yog lub Indo-European lus.

Txoj kev ntawm kev sib piv ntawm cov lus

Lus yuav muab piv nyob rau hauv ntau txoj kev. Lub typology yog ib qho ntawm feem ntau ntawm lawv. Txoj kev tshawb no hom ntawm lus tshwm sim, raws li zoo raws li lub nrhiav kom tau rau lub hauv paus ntawm lub universal kev cai uas muaj nyob rau ntau. Txawm li cas los, qhov no txoj kev muaj peev xwm tsis yuav txhob. Nyob rau hauv lwm yam lus, siv nws tsis tau kawm lus nyob rau hauv cov nqe lus ntawm lawv cov keeb kwm. Lub ntsiab lub luag hauj lwm rau comparative kev tshawb fawb yuav tsum ua si ib notion ntawm kinship, raws li zoo raws li cov qauv ntawm cov nws tsev lag luam.

Caj kev faib ntawm Indo-European lus

Nws yog ib qho analogue kev lom raws li qhov uas yog faib sib txawv pab pawg neeg ntau hom. Tsaug rau nws, peb muaj peev xwm npaj ntau yam ntawm yam lus, uas muaj txog rau txhiab. Qhia cov qauv, peb yuav txo tau tag nrho cov ntawm no set rau ib tus me naj npawb ntawm cov lus tsev neeg. Cov uas ua kev tshuaj ntsuam genetic kev faib tau yog invaluable tsis tsuas yog rau cov lug, tab sis kuj rau ib tug xov tooj ntawm lwm yam kev cai qhuab qhia. Lawv yog cov tshwj xeeb tshaj yog ib qho tseem ceeb rau ethnography li cov emergence thiab kev loj hlob ntawm ntau hom lus yog ze ze rau ethnogenesis (lub rov tshwm sim thiab kev loj hlob ntawm pawg haiv neeg).

Tsev neeg tsob ntoo ntawm Indo-European lus qhia tias qhov sib txawv nruab nrab ntawm lawv yog kho kom zoo tshaj lub sij hawm. Qhov no yuav tsum qhia tias nyob rau hauv xws li ib tug yam uas qhov kev ncua deb therebetween nce, uas yog ntsuas raws li qhov ntev ntawm tsob ntoo ceg los yog xib xub.

Cov ceg ntawm lub Indo-European tsev neeg

Tsev neeg tsob ntoo ntawm Indo-European lus muaj ntau ceg. Nyob rau hauv nws sawv tawm raws li ib tug loj pab pawg neeg thiab muaj tsuas yog ib yam lus. Ntawm no lawv muaj. Qhov no Niaj hnub nimno Greek, Indo-Iranian lus, ntawv qaij (xws li Latin), Roman, Celtic, Germanic, Slavic, Baltic, Albanian, Armenian, Anatolian (Hithai-Lubian) thiab Tocharian. Qhov no muaj xws li, nyob rau hauv tas li ntawd, ib tug xov tooj ntawm tu noob, uas yog lub npe hu rau peb los ntawm lub meager qhov chaw, tsuas yog nyob rau ntawm ob peb lub gloss, inscriptions thiab qhov chaw npe antroponimii lub Byzantine thiab Greek sau phau ntawv. Qhov no thracian, Phrygian, messapsky, Illyrian, drevnemakedonsky, Venetic lus. Lawv yuav tsis paub tseeb tias yuav ntaus nqi mus rau ib tug los yog lwm pab pawg neeg (ceg). Tej zaum lawv yuav tsum muab sau ua ke nyob rau hauv sab nraud pab pawg (ceg), ris rau genealogical tsob ntoo ntawm Indo-European lus. Zaum no muab faib rau qhov no qhov teeb meem.

Ntawm cov hoob kawm, muaj lwm yam tshaj li cov neeg uas muaj npe saum toj no, thiab lwm yam Indo-European lus. Lawv txoj hmoo yog sib txawv. Ib txhia ntawm lawv yog kiag li tu noob, lwm leej lwm tus tau tso tseg ob peb ib co kua nplaum nyob rau hauv lub lexicon ntawm lub substrate thiab toponomastike. Sim tau mus rov qab ib co Indo-European lus rau cov neeg txom nyem kev. Lub nto moo tshaj plaws reconstructions ntawm no zoo xws li cov Cimmerian lus. Nws liam tshuav ib co kua nplaum nyob rau hauv lub Baltic thiab Slavic. Tsis tas li ntawd ntawm ceeb toom yog cov Pelagie, hais los ntawm pre-Greek cov pej xeem ntawm ancient Greece.

Pidgin

Thaum lub sij hawm lub expansion ntawm lub ntau yam Indo-European lus uas tau tshwm sim thaum lub xyoo pua xeem, nyob rau hauv lub Romanesque thiab German raug tsim raws li nyob rau hauv kaum ob ntawm tshiab - Pidgin. Lawv tsiag ntawv los ntawm radically abbreviated phau ntawv txhais lus (1.5 th. Lo lus los yog tsawg dua) thiab ib tug simplified qauv sau ntawv. Tom qab, ib txhia ntawm lawv creolized, thiab lwm yam high-qib steel nyob rau hauv kev haumxeeb thiab grammatically. Cov no yog cov Bislama, Tok Pisin, Krio nyob rau hauv Sierra Leone, Equatorial Guinea thiab cov Gambia; seshelva nyob rau hauv lub Seychelles; Mauritius, thiab Haitian Réunionnaise li al.

Raws li ib qho piv txwv, ib tug nyuag piav qhia ntawm ob Indo-European tsev neeg ntawm cov lus. Cov Thawj zaug ntawm lawv - Tajik.

Tajik

Nws belongs rau lub Indo-European tsev neeg, mus rau lub Indo-Iranian ceg thiab lub Iranian pab pawg neeg. Nws yog ib lub xeev nyob rau hauv Tajikistan, coob leej ntau tus nyob rau hauv Central Asia. Ua ke nrog cov lus Dari ntaub ntawv idioms Tajiks lub Afghanistan, nws koom rau sab hnub tuaj tsam Tshiab Persian lub suab hais lus pab. Qhov no lus yuav suav hais tias raws li ib tug variant ntawm lub Persian (northeast). Tseem tau kev nkag siab ntawm cov neeg uas siv cov Tajik lus, thiab Persian-hais lus nyob rau ntawm Iran.

Ossetian

Nws belongs rau lub Indo-European lus rau lub Indo-Iranian ceg ntawm lub Iranian pab pawg neeg thiab sab hnub tuaj tej pab pawg. Ossetian lus yog ib qho nyob rau hauv sab qab teb thiab sab qaum teb Ossetia. Tag nrho cov xov tooj ntawm cov neeg hais lus yog nyob ib ncig ntawm 450-500 txhiab. Txiv neej. Muaj ib co kua nplaum ntawm ancient tiv tauj nrog Slavic, Turks thiab Finno-Ugric. Ossetian lus muaj ob tug dialects: Iron thiab Digor.

Lub cev qhuav dej ntawm tus nplaig puag

Tsis pub dhau lub plaub txhiab BC. e. muaj ib lub cev qhuav dej ntawm ib tug tib Indo-European hauv paus. Qhov kev tshwm sim coj mus rau lub rov tshwm sim ntawm ntau yam tshiab sawv daws yuav. Figuratively hais lus, ntawm lub noob pib loj hlob genealogical tsob ntoo ntawm Indo-European lus. Muaj tsis muaj tsis ntseeg tias cov Hithai-Luwian lus sib cais ua ntej. Lub sij hawm qee Tocharian ceg ntawm cov feem ntau muaj teeb meem vim hais tias ntawm lub scarcity ntawm cov ntaub ntawv.

Npaj siab mus ua ke lub sib txawv ceg

Los ntawm Indo-European lus tsev neeg muaj heev heev ceg. Tsis yog txhua txhua los kom muab lawv nrog txhua lwm yam tau ua. Piv txwv li, peb hypothesize tias cov Slavic thiab Baltic lus tshwj xeeb ze. Nws yog assumed nrog hwm rau Italic thiab Celtic. Nyob deb ntawm cov pom tau hais tias yog xav tau lub union ntawm Iranian thiab Indo-Aryan haiv lus, thiab Nuristani thiab Dard nyob rau hauv lub Indo-Iranian ceg. Nyob rau hauv tej rooj plaub, txawm muaj kev tswj kom restore yam ntxwv Proto Indo-Iranian lus qauv.

Nws yog lub npe hu hais tias lub Slavs mus rau lub Indo-European lus tsev neeg. Tab sis tseem tsis precisely txiav txim seb puas los yog tsis faib lawv cov lus nyob rau hauv ib tug nyias muaj nyias ib ceg. Tib yam siv rau lub Baltic haiv neeg. Balto-Slavic kev sib sau ua ib tug ntau ntawm controversy nyob rau hauv no lub koom haum raws li lub Indo-European lus tsev neeg. Cov neeg tsis tau tiag tiag ntaus nqi mus rau ib tug ceg.

Raws li rau lwm yam hypotheses, lawv tag nrho cov muab tso tseg nyob rau hauv niaj hnub science. Yam sib txawv nta tej zaum yuav ua lub hauv paus rau division ntawm lub loj pas dej ua ke raws li lub Indo-European lus tsev neeg. Cov neeg yog ib cov cab kuj los ntawm tej yam ntawm nws hom lus yog heev heev. Yog li ntawd, cais lawv tsis yog li ntawd yooj yim. Redprinyaty tau ntau yam npaj siab los ua ib tug coherent system. Piv txwv li, raws li kev soj ntsuam ntawm lub Indo-European tsiaj ntawv velar tag nrho cov lus ntawm no pab pawg neeg tau muab faib mus rau hauv Centum thiab satem. Cov koom haum ua teb yog muaj npe nyob rau hauv rog xav txog ntawm lo lus "ib puas". Nyob rau hauv satemnyh lus thawj zaug suab ntawm lo lus NCUAV yog reflected nyob rau hauv daim ntawv ntawm "sh", "c", thiab hais txog. N. Raws li kentumnyh, hais tias nws yog yus muaj los ntawm "x", "mus rau" thiab thiaj on. N.

thawj comparativists

Lub rov tshwm sim ntawm txoj kev sib piv keeb kwm linguistics hais txog thaum pib ntawm lub xyoo pua puv 19 thiab yog txuam nrog lub npe ntawm Franz Bopp. Nyob rau hauv nws cov hauj lwm, nws ua ntej muaj pov thawj scientific kev sib raug zoo ntawm Indo-European lus.

Thawj comparativists haiv neeg twb Germans. Nws F. Bopp, J. Zeiss, J. Grimm thiab lwm tus neeg. Lawv thawj kos mloog mus rau qhov tseeb hais tias Sanskrit (ib tug ancient Indian lus) yog heev uas zoo sib xws rau German. Lawv muaj pov thawj hais tias ib co Iranian, Indian thiab European lus muaj ib qho keeb kwm. Tom qab ntawd, kev soj ntsuam ua ke lawv mus rau hauv "Indo-Germanic" tsev neeg. Tom qab ib tug thaum nws pom hais tias rau lub reconstruction ntawm Proto yog paramount tseem ceeb raws li lub Slavic thiab Baltic. Yog li ntawd, ib tug tshiab lub sij hawm - lub "Indo-European lus."

Cov tsim nyog ntawm Avgusta Shleyhera

Lub yim hli ntuj Schleicher (yees duab saum toj no qhia tau hais tias nws) nyob rau hauv nruab nrab ntawm lub xyoo pua puv 19, sau ua ke cov achievements comparativists predecessors. Nws piav txog txhua pab pawg ntawm cov Indo-European tsev neeg, nyob rau hauv particular, nws pristine mob. Tus kws tshawb fawb pom tias kev siv ntawm cov qauv ntawm cov ntau proto-hom lus reconstruction. Lub correctness ntawm nws tus kheej reconstruction, nws muaj tsis muaj tsis ntseeg. Schleicher txawm sau ib phau ntawv nyob rau hauv lub Proto-Indo-European lus, recreated lawv. Qhov no dab neeg "Cov yaj thiab nees."

Comparative linguistics tsim raws li ib tug tshwm sim los ntawm ntau yam kev tshawb fawb txog cov lus, raws li tau zoo raws li ua txoj kev ua pov thawj lawv affinity thiab txua dua ntawm ib qhov chaw prayazykovogo lub xeev. Lub yim hli ntuj Schleicher yog rho nrog ib tug schematic txheej txheem ntawm lawv txoj kev loj hlob raws li ib tug tsev neeg tsob ntoo. Indo-European pab pawg neeg ntawm cov lus zoo nkaus li nyob rau tib lub sij hawm nyob rau hauv cov nram no daim ntawv: chim - ib qho lus txwv zeej txwv koob, ib yam lus yog cov ceg. Tsev Neeg tsob ntoo yog ib tug meej duab ntawm nyob deb thiab nyob ze kev sib raug zoo. Tsis tas li ntawd, nws qhia lub xub ntiag ntawm zoo txog kev Proto (Baltic-Slavic - lub pog koob yawg koob Baltic thiab Slavic, German thiab Slavic - lub pog koob yawg koob Baltic, Germanic thiab Slavic, etc ...).

Niaj hnub nimno cov kev tshawb fawb Quentin Atkinson

Ntau ntev los no, ib tug thoob ntiaj teb pab neeg ntawm cov biologists thiab linguists pom tias cov pab pawg neeg ntawm Indo-European lus originated ntawm Anatolia (qaib ntxhw).

Nws yog nws leej twg, nyob rau hauv lawv pom, yog lub birthplace ntawm no pab pawg neeg. Kev tshawb fawb coj los Quentin Atkinson, ib tug biologist nyob rau hauv New Zealand lub University of Auckland. Zaum siv rau kev tsom xam cov sib txawv txoj kev Indo-European lus, uas tau raug siv los kawm txog cov evolution ntawm tsiaj. Lawv analyzed ib tug Tshuag ntawm cov lo lus 103 hom lus. Nyob rau hauv tas li ntawd, lawv soj ntsuam cov ntaub ntawv rau lawv cov keeb kwm kev loj hlob thiab thaj tis. Nyob rau qhov no hauv paus, tus neeg tshawb fawb ua qhov no xaus.

kev saib xyuas ntawm cognates

Yuav ua li cas puas tau cov zaum kawm ib pab pawg neeg ntawm Indo-European lus tsev neeg? Lawv xav hais tias cognates. Qhov no yog tib yam hauv paus lus, uas muaj ib tug zoo xws li cov suab thiab cov keeb kwm nyob rau hauv ob los sis ntau hom lus. Lawv yog cov feem ntau yog lo lus uas yog tsawg raug rau cov kev hloov nyob rau hauv lub chav kawm ntawm evolution (ntawm lub tsev neeg kev sib raug zoo, lub npe ntawm lub cev qhov chaw thiab tej lus). Zaum piv rau tus naj npawb ntawm cognates nyob rau hauv ntau hom lus. Nyob rau qhov no hauv paus, lawv txiav txim raws li ntawm lawv cov kev sib raug zoo. Yog li, cognates tau muab piv ib yam rau noob, thiab change - sib txawv cognates.

Kev siv cov ntaub ntawv keeb kwm thiab chaw nyob cov ntaub ntawv

Lub zaum ces resorted mus rau ntaub ntawv keeb kwm nyob rau hauv lub sij hawm thaum lub liam materialized divergence lus. Piv txwv li, nws yog Kwv yees hais tias nyob rau hauv lub xyoo 270 los ntawm Latin pib cais Romance lus. Nws yog nyob rau hauv lub sij hawm no, Emperor Aurelian txiav txim siab tawm ntawm lub xeev ntawm Dacia Roman colonists. Nyob rau hauv tas li ntawd, tus neeg tshawb fawb siv cov ntaub ntawv nyob rau hauv lub tam sim no thaj faib rau ntau yam lus.

tau ntawm txoj kev tshawb

Tom qab txuas lub ntaub ntawv uas tau yog tsim los pab evolutionary tsob ntoo raws li nram qab no ob tug hypotheses: barrow thiab Anatolian. Soj ntsuam piv rau ob ua tsob ntoo, pom hais tias "Anatolian" nyob rau hauv cov nqe lus ntawm statistics yog lub feem ntau yuav.

Heev ambiguous lug txhawb cov miv yog ib tug cov tshuaj tiv thaiv rau kev soj ntsuam tau los ntawm cov pab pawg neeg ntawm Atkinson. Muaj ntau kws tshawb fawb tau qhia hais tias ib tug kev sib piv nrog rau cov lom evolution ntawm lus yog tsis tsim nyog, vim hais tias lawv muaj ntau mechanisms. Txawm li cas los, lwm zaum tau pom nws txoj kev txaus cai siv ntawm tej hom kev kawm. Txawm li cas los, cov pab pawg neeg twb thuam rau qhov tseeb hais tias nws twb tsis tau soj ntsuam peb hypothesis, Balkan.

Nws yuav tsum tau muab sau tseg hais tias rau hnub tim, lub ntsiab hypothesis ntawm lub hauv paus chiv keeb ntawm Indo-European lus yog cov Anatolian thiab lub pov toj. Raws li cov thawj, feem ntau nrov ntawm historians thiab linguists, lub koob yawm txwv tsev ntawm lawv - Dub hiav txwv steppes. Lwm yam hypotheses, Anatolian thiab Balkan hais tias Indo-European lus kis los ntawm Anatolia (nyob rau hauv thawj cov ntaub ntawv) los yog ntawm lub Balkan ceg av qab teb (nyob rau hauv lub thib ob).